The micro-fragments emitted by clothing, household linens, and footwear (CHF) pose an increasingly severe environmental and public health risk. While scientific research has thus far primarily focused on manufacturing processes and emissions generated during washing, the impacts of the end-of-life and recycling phases of products have remained largely unexplored. Refashion’s latest comprehensive literature review fills this critical gap, highlighting the unintended consequences that industry steps toward a circular economy may have on the emission of microfibers and microparticles.
Extensive and Underestimated Pollution: Plastic is Not the Only Problem
The issue of microplastics is taking an increasingly prominent place in environmental debates. According to recent estimates, 15-35% of microplastics found in the environment may originate from synthetic textiles. However, this figure can be misleading, as it focuses exclusively on synthetic fibers and ignores natural and artificial fibers, which are also present in the environment in extremely high quantities. According to data collected by the MicroFibre Consortium (MFC), approximately 70% of emitted micro-fragments are actually of natural origin.
The emitted pollution critically affects all three main mediums of the biosphere:
-
Aquatic environment: This is the most scientifically documented area, where current estimates suggest up to 3 billion tons of microplastics may enter annually.
-
Terrestrial environment: According to an extensive 2025 study by the French ADEME, microplastics were detected in 76% of the tested soils in France.
-
Atmosphere: Research conducted between 2016 and 2022 revealed that the number of cellulose-based fibers in the air is approximately 2.5 times that of synthetic fibers, although this trend seems to be gradually reversing today.
These particles are proven to carry health risks for both wildlife and humans. Natural fibers—often believed by the public to be harmless—can also be responsible for severe diseases. Byssinosis, for example, is a recognized occupational lung disease caused by chronic exposure to cotton, flax, or hemp dust among textile workers.
Distribution of Emissions by Life Cycle
The emission of micro-fragments cannot be tied to a single point but is continuously present throughout the entire life cycle of a textile. Based on the limited data available, emission rates can be estimated as follows:
-
Approximately 50% is generated directly during the manufacturing stage (spinning, weaving/knitting, finishing).
-
Approximately 25% is released into the air and environment during everyday wear (friction, mechanical wear, environmental exposure).
-
Approximately 25% is attributed to home and industrial washing processes.
A major paradox of current research is that the vast majority of studies focus exclusively on post-wash emissions, while this accounts for only about a quarter of total emissions. Meanwhile, the end-of-life and recycling phases have remained almost entirely data-deficient areas for science. It is important to note that material aging drastically affects emissions: in the case of used clothes worn under real-world conditions, up to twice as many micro-fragments can be released during the first wash after wear compared to new, unworn clothes. Furthermore, UV radiation significantly degrades fibers, which can lead to increased nanoparticle emissions during natural wear.
The Recycling Paradox: When the Circular Economy Also Pollutes
Textile recycling is essential for protecting virgin resources; however, the processing itself can contribute to the release of micro-fragments. Analyzing the processes, the following observations can be made:
-
Mechanical recycling: The industrial cutting and shredding of textiles inevitably lead to a reduction in fiber length and quality degradation. A recent study showed that particle emissions into the atmosphere during the cutting phase can be up to 50 times higher than the values measured during washing. A fresh 2026 study even concluded that PET products subjected to mechanical recycling three consecutive times emitted three times as many micro-fragments during testing as their counterparts made from virgin fibers.
-
Thermo-mechanical recycling: During this process, high temperatures and oxidation reduce the molar mass of polymers, thus deteriorating the mechanical properties of the material. To offset this quality loss, the proportion of recycled raw material in new products is rarely raised above 30% in the industry.
-
Chemical recycling: From an environmental perspective, this method seems the most promising in terms of minimizing emissions during the use of the finished product, as the quality of the fibers obtained is theoretically identical to that of virgin fibers. However, the technology itself is not entirely clean: the cleaning and decolorization phases at the beginning of the process can be critical regarding fragment formation. It has been shown, for example, that alkaline hydrolysis emits fewer micro-fragments than acid hydrolysis during the recycling of polycotton materials.
Footwear: The Blind Spot of Research
Micro-fragment emissions from footwear, particularly shoe soles, represent one of the largest and most overlooked areas in scientific literature. Research by the Fraunhofer Institute ranks shoe usage as the 7th leading cause of microplastic generation, surpassing even the washing of textiles. The degradation of shoe sole materials is primarily accelerated by UV radiation, high temperatures, and continuous mechanical fatigue.
Currently, there is no standardized measurement method globally to accurately determine the quantity of particles emitted by footwear. The micronization of shoe soles (which is a recycling procedure) is inherently a process that creates micro-sized fragments smaller than 1 millimeter. If these recycled materials are mixed into new products, such as new rubber soles, as fillers, it can accelerate product wear and further increase emissions. Of particular concern is the fact that various toxic chemical additives (e.g., anti-wear agents, plasticizers, UV filters) can leach into the soil alongside microparticles from shoe soles, which has been proven to severely damage local ecosystems.
Concluding Thoughts and Future Challenges
The Refashion report clearly highlights the urgent sectoral need to develop strict, standardized measurement protocols covering the entire life cycle and all receiving environments (water, air, soil). Although the research underlying the article does not question the overall environmental benefits of the circular economy, it emphasizes that the impacts of recycling processes and material aging must be mapped much more accurately to mitigate micro-fragment emissions.
References and Official Sources:
-
Original Study: Refashion – Literature review on the release of micro-fragments from CHF with a focus on end-of-life: https://media-pro.refashion.fr/2026/05/literature-review-micro-fragments-refashion-en.pdf
-
State and Official Sites Based on the Document:
-
French AGEC Law (regulation of microplastics): https://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/jorf/article_jo/JORFART1000041553847
-
French State Environmental Labeling for Textiles: https://www.ecologie.gouv.fr/politiques-publiques/affichage-environnemental-vetements
-