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★Mark us as a preferred sourceMore than a million plastic bottles are bought around the world every minute, and a large share of them contain water. Microplastics in bottled water are no longer a hypothesis but a repeatedly confirmed fact – the real question is why we, as consumers, keep reaching for the PET bottle anyway. Two researchers from Concordia University in Canada, Sarah Sajedi and Chunjiang An, set out to answer that question by surveying more than 15,000 people in 81 countries about their drinking water habits. Their findings were published in May 2026 in the Journal of Cleaner Production.
In short: Microplastics in bottled water reach us mainly through our habits, which makes much of the exposure a behavioral issue. According to the global survey, convenience, travel, missing water fountains and advertising are the strongest drivers of PET bottled water consumption, while three quarters of respondents know that bottled water contains plastic particles.
Why the water bottle?
Among single-use plastics, the water bottle holds a special place. A plastic bag or a food container typically affects our bodies indirectly, through the environment, whereas a bottle releases particles directly into the water we drink. For this reason, researchers regard bottled water as one of the best-documented dietary exposure pathways.
Most bottles are made of polyethylene terephthalate (PET). PET releases nano- and microplastic particles during transport and storage, under mechanical stress and when exposed to UV radiation. According to studies cited in the paper, plastic contamination was detected in more than 90 percent of bottled water samples worldwide, and state-of-the-art detection methods have identified anywhere from thousands to hundreds of thousands – in some cases roughly 240,000 – nanoplastic particles per liter.
The problem does not end when the bottle is empty. Although PET is recyclable in principle, the global recycling rate remains below 30 percent, and textiles made from bottles shed new microfibers in the wash. The processing stage itself carries risks, too, as we explained in our article on the hidden dangers of plastic recycling wash water. And a large share of plastic waste never gets recycled where it is collected – see our report on record EU plastic waste exports to Turkey.
15,000 respondents, 81 countries: how the survey was done
The researchers ran their online questionnaire on the ArcGIS Survey123 platform between October 18, 2023 and February 5, 2024. A total of 15,143 valid responses were collected: 77 percent from the United States, 13 percent from Canada, and the remaining 10 percent from Europe, Asia, the Middle East and Africa.
The 23 questions covered monthly bottle consumption, recycling, refillable bottle use, reasons and locations for buying bottled water, access to drinking water, exposure to advertising, and knowledge and concerns about microplastics. The data were analyzed with several statistical methods, including logistic regression, principal component analysis, cluster analysis and factor analysis.
The underlying numbers are worth keeping in mind. Based on data from the International Bottled Water Association (IBWA), the global average is about 9 gallons – roughly 34 liters – of bottled water per person per year, while Mexico, at the top of the list, consumes several times that amount. According to the paper’s chart, Hungary also ranks among the above-average countries, at around 100 liters per capita.
Who drinks the most bottled water?
One of the clearest results is that bottled water consumption is not random but follows distinct demographic patterns.
Age is one of the strongest factors: younger people, especially those aged 18–39, drink considerably more bottled water than older people. Interestingly, they also recycle more. Older respondents, on the other hand, are more likely to carry a refillable bottle.
According to the statistical model, men are significantly more likely to consume bottled water than women, although they also proved slightly more active in recycling.
The most surprising result relates to education. People with higher education are more environmentally aware and recycle slightly more – yet they also consume more bottled water. The authors attribute this to lifestyle: frequent travel, professional demands and convenience can override awareness. Knowledge alone, in other words, is not enough to change behavior.
Three consumer types: the traveler, the urbanite and the active
Based on the reasons and locations of purchase, the researchers identified three distinct consumer groups.
The “Practical Travelers” have the highest bottled water consumption. Convenience is their main driver, and their purchases are tied to hotels, flights, restaurants, conferences and sporting events. In such transient settings, recycling is also harder for them.
The “Influenced Urbanites” buy somewhat fewer bottles, but their decisions are strongly shaped by social media and influencers – nearly half of them reported this influence. They travel less; bottled water appears mostly in familiar, everyday urban situations such as restaurants.
The “Active and Aware” group also drinks a lot of bottled water, but for different reasons: more than half cited the lack of safe drinking water alternatives. They are highly active – playing sports, attending concerts, traveling – and they show the widest gap between environmental intention and actual behavior.
No fountain, so it’s PET
Perhaps the most important and practically useful finding concerns infrastructure. Nearly 78 percent of respondents said they regularly – at moderate or high frequency – find themselves in places without water fountains or drinkable water.
The statistical analysis showed a moderate but clear association: people who frequently encounter locations without drinking water are less likely to carry a refillable bottle. This may seem counterintuitive, since that is exactly when a reusable bottle would be useful. The researchers’ interpretation, however, is that a refillable bottle only works if there is somewhere to refill it – if there isn’t, people simply give up and buy water.
The authors draw an important conclusion from this: exposure is often determined not by individual preference but by a lack of access. Expanding refill points in public spaces, transport hubs and workplaces is therefore not merely a matter of convenience, but a public health issue.
Advertising reaches into our water glass
The survey also asked how often participants see ads promoting bottled water. The result is a statistically significant positive association: the more ads people see, the more bottled water they consume.
The effect size is modest – ad exposure explains about 6 percent of the variation in consumption – but in behavioral research this is not negligible. The association was strongest among 18–29-year-olds and practically absent in the 50–59 age group. The authors therefore list the regulation of advertising that presents bottled water as healthier or more convenient among the possible intervention points.
Microplastics in bottled water: what we know and what we only believe
Most respondents are aware of the problem. Some 75 percent agreed that the vast majority of bottled water contains microplastics, and 70 percent believe there is a link between microplastics in bottles and cancer risk. Roughly one in two respondents believes that microplastics can harm the immune, reproductive and developmental systems, or cause allergies and cell damage.
Factual knowledge, however, is patchy. Fewer than a quarter of respondents recognized that the overwhelming majority of plastic bottles never get recycled. The correlation analysis also showed that concern and knowledge do not necessarily go hand in hand: someone who knows bottled water is contaminated does not necessarily know the specific health effects.
It is important to stress that science has not yet had the final word on health risks. The paper itself acknowledges that the long-term effects of chronic, low-dose ingestion remain poorly understood. There is growing evidence that particles can accumulate in the body – they have been detected in human blood, the liver and the kidneys, among other places. Exposure also starts early: our article on Greenpeace’s findings of microplastics in pouched baby foods shows how widespread the issue is. The fact that 70 percent of respondents associate bottled water with cancer risk therefore reflects public perception rather than a proven causal link.
Awareness does, however, visibly shape choices. Those who knew about contamination were significantly more likely to choose more sustainable packaging. Without bottled water available, most would choose filtered water (82 percent) or sparkling/seltzer water (81 percent), while tap water was chosen by only 39 percent. Among single-use containers, glass was the most popular (57 percent), followed by metal (36 percent), with plastic chosen by only 31 percent. Material innovation is moving in this direction as well – see our piece on Shellworks’ plastic-free Vivomer made from microbes and waste.
A critical look: how far can an online survey go?
The study’s value lies in its sample size and in bringing a behavioral perspective that is rare in microplastics research. Still, a few limitations are worth keeping in mind when interpreting the results.
The sample is heavily North American: 90 percent of responses came from the United States and Canada, so the “global” label refers more to the number of countries covered than to the representativeness of the results. Participants were recruited via social media with a gift card prize draw, which can bias the sample through self-selection.
The responses are self-reported, and the study did not measure actual microplastic intake – only drinking habits, from which potential exposure can be inferred. The authors themselves point out that the results must be interpreted in light of local infrastructure and economic development: in low- and middle-income countries, bottled water is often a necessity, whereas in wealthy countries it is more a matter of lifestyle and marketing.
What does this mean for Hungary?
According to the data in the paper, bottled water consumption in Hungary is above the global average, even though Hungarian tap water is strictly monitored and safe to drink in most municipalities. This suggests that in Hungary, too, habits, convenience, taste preferences and distrust of tap water drive PET bottle purchases – exactly the factors the study found typical of high-income countries.
Hungary’s mandatory deposit return system, running since 2024, has significantly improved PET bottle collection, and bottles must now contain at least 25 percent recycled plastic. But deposit return solves a waste problem, not an exposure problem: microplastics enter our bodies when we drink the water, not when we throw away or return the bottle.
What can we do ourselves?
One of the study’s key messages is that while microplastics in bottled water cannot be avoided at the source by consumers, a large part of our exposure depends on modifiable behavior. A few simple steps can make a real difference:
- Where tap water is drinkable, drink tap water – filtered if needed – and carry a glass or stainless steel bottle.
- If you do buy PET bottled water, don’t leave it in direct sunlight, in a hot car or in the heat for long periods, as heat, mechanical stress and UV radiation increase particle release.
- Plan ahead before travel, events and sports: check where you can refill, and take your bottle with you.
- Be critical of advertising that suggests bottled water is “purer” or “healthier”.
- Ask your workplace, school or local council to install water fountains and refill points.
The authors conclude that reducing exposure to nano- and microplastics is not solely a technological or waste management task. It requires coordinated action across public health, urban planning, environmental policy and advertising regulation. The simplest step, however, is ours: every glass of water poured from a reusable bottle means one PET bottle less.
Frequently asked questions: microplastics in bottled water
Does bottled water contain microplastics?
Yes, studies have detected plastic contamination in more than 90 percent of bottled water samples worldwide. PET bottles release nano- and microplastic particles into the water during transport and storage, under mechanical stress and when exposed to UV radiation. State-of-the-art detection methods have identified thousands to hundreds of thousands, in some cases roughly 240,000, nanoplastic particles per liter.
Who drinks the most bottled water according to the study?
Young adults aged 18–39 consume the most bottled water, and men are more likely to buy it than women. Surprisingly, people with higher education also drink more of it, which the authors attribute to travel, professional demands and convenience. Older respondents, by contrast, are more likely to carry a refillable bottle instead of buying single-use plastic.
Why do people buy bottled water?
Convenience is the main reason, reinforced by travel, events and sports. Nearly 78 percent of respondents regularly find themselves in places without water fountains or drinkable water, and in these situations they tend to buy water rather than rely on a reusable bottle. Social media and advertising also increase consumption, particularly among younger people.
Is it proven that microplastics in bottled water cause cancer?
No, a causal link has not been proven. Although 70 percent of respondents believe microplastics are linked to cancer risk, the study acknowledges that the long-term effects of chronic, low-dose ingestion remain poorly understood. Particles have already been detected in human blood, liver and kidneys, so reducing exposure is a sensible precaution while research continues.
How can I reduce my exposure to microplastics from bottled water?
The most effective step is to drink tap water where it is safe, filtered if needed, and to use a glass or stainless steel bottle. If you do buy PET bottled water, avoid leaving it in sunlight or a hot car. Plan refill options before travel and sports, and be critical of ads presenting bottled water as healthier.
Source:
Sajedi, S., An, C. (2026): The plastic pulse: How global water consumption behaviors shape exposure to nano- and microplastics from single-use plastic water bottles. Journal of Cleaner Production, 563, 148459. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959652626010000 – DOI: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2026.148459 (open access, CC BY 4.0)
